II Peter

We have already seen that Peter did not write any letters, and certainly not in Greek. Our poorly educated fisherman would not have written II Peter himself, at least not entirely. Around the year 200, the Church Father Origen reported that not everyone accepted II Peter as an authentic letter from Peter. The style is too different from I Peter and, unlike II Timothy, the epistle resembles too closely the literary pseudepigraphical works of the second century. There are no greetings and no attention is paid to local circumstances.

Peter, fragment of the fresco of the Good Shepherd in the 4th-century Catacomb of Saint Thecla in Rome.

Even if II Peter is a literary pseudepigraphical letter (i.e., not a clever forgery but a deliberate stylistic device), one must still acknowledge that many readers early on saw it as a genuine letter from the historical Peter. That is why they accepted the letter as "apostolic" and, ultimately, as part of the New Testament. It is therefore possible to read this letter in the context of 60s Rome.

It is taking so long

There we find Peter, who, in the face of his approaching death, is still living life to the fullest based on his experiences with Jesus and wants to convey this to his brothers and sisters. The author calls on people not to give up now that it is taking so long. He speaks out against those who mock the believers, saying, "Where is the promise of his coming? For since the fathers fell asleep, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation." The word "fathers" does not refer to the apostles who would already have died when the letter was written—after all, it must be read from the perspective of Peter, who was still alive. Rather, it refers to the promise of a "day of the Lord" to the Jewish ancestors, the day of which John the Baptist and Jesus said, "The time has come, the kingdom of God is at hand!"
"The prophecy was not misunderstood," says Peter, "God is not slow in keeping his promise, the Lord will come. He will punish sinners, he will bring justice to the oppressed."
"The mockers knowingly forget that it took a long time before the first world was destroyed by the flood," he continues, "so now we must wait for the fire that will cleanse heaven and earth of wickedness. Time does not matter to God—a thousand years are like a day that has already passed, but it is his patient desire that all people be saved."
He does his best to build a bridge between the world of ideas of the Jewish believers (the letter of Jude) and the letters of Paul, while urging people not to interpret those letters too radically. He is concerned with the same message as Paul's to the Jewish believers in Rome who are looking forward to judgment: "It is also God's patience with you, to deliver you" (3:15, compare Romans 2:4). "So make sure you don't stumble, but keep growing in your faith," is Peter's message. "Move forward step by step with virtue, knowledge, self-control, perseverance, godliness, brotherly love, and love for everyone. Then you will really get to know Jesus, and you will bear rich fruit and enter his eternal kingdom."

Peter's lowest point became solid ground

This Peter does not mention the resurrection but the glorification on the mountain as the foundation of his faith. And that fits perfectly with the Peter we know from the Gospel according to Mark, where that moment is the great turning point of the story: there Jesus was furthest from his goal and least understood by his disciples.  "Get away from me, Satan," he said to Peter when he wanted nothing to do with the suffering that awaited Jesus (and now himself!). There he saw and heard who Jesus really is: the beloved Son of God. There he began to understand him in the light of Moses and Elijah (the Law and the Prophets). There he began to grow step by step "in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ."

“Death to the Christians!”

It was not only Jesus' followers who believed that major changes were inevitable. In Rome, too, there were predictions that a world ruler would come from the East. Based on their astrological insights, some advised Nero to take the kingship of Jerusalem upon himself.
The world would be destroyed by fire, thought the followers of Jesus. And in the year 64, Rome burned. Was that the will of God? Some said it was Nero's will. Was he opposed to Jesus as a kind of antichrist? To the followers of Jesus, it certainly seemed that way: Paul and Peter were executed along with dozens of other followers of Jesus.
A Roman church leader looks back on this some thirty years later in his letter (I Clement) to the congregation in Corinth, when he warns them against fanaticism and envy:

"Because of fanaticism and envy, the greatest and most sincere pillars of the church were persecuted, so that their race ended in death. Let us keep these good apostles in mind:
Peter, who through unjust fanaticism endured not one or two but many sufferings, and with such a testimony was led to his deserved place of honor.
Paul also showed the reward of perseverance amid fanaticism and strife. After being imprisoned seven times, driven away, and stoned as a herald from east to west, he received the renowned glory of his faith. After he had taught righteousness throughout the world, even reaching the ends of the west, and had also testified before rulers, he left this world and was led to the holy place, as a wonderful example of perseverance.
To these holy men were added a great multitude of the elect. They have become impressive examples to us, given the many tortures and torments—because of that fanaticism!—which they endured.
Because of fanaticism, women were persecuted as "Danaids and Dirces." Suffering terrible and unholy tortures, they completed the race of faith with their frail bodies and won the great prize. Fanaticism alienated women from their husbands and nullified the words of our father Adam: 'She is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh.'
Yes, fanaticism and strife have overthrown great cities and uprooted great nations!"

"Danaïden and Dirces" are names from mythology. The fifty daughters of Danaus were forced to marry, but on their wedding night they killed their husbands. As punishment, they were condemned to scoop water with a sieve for eternity. Dirce was killed by being tied to the horns of a bull and sent to run wild. Perhaps problems surrounding marriage and sexuality with unbelieving spouses (as in I Corinthians 7) were the reason for using these names and punishments in the arena 'shows'.

Nero, the 17-year-old who became emperor in 54; he was deposed in 68, whereupon he committed suicide with the help of his secretary, reconstruction by © Daniel Voshart.

The Letter to the Hebrews

After the sickening torture shows and executions, someone writes the Letter to the Hebrews: "Make no mistake! God is a consuming fire that will shake the earth and the heavens (12:26-29); they will perish, but he remains forever (1:11)."

A friend of Timothy writes from Italy...

The letter gets straight to the point, at least in the version preserved in the New Testament. There is no salutation with the writer and addressees. We begin immediately with a beautiful discourse on Jesus as our heavenly high priest. It is a unique letter full of inspiration, comfort, and encouragement. At the same time, the ending, which seems to have been added as a postscript, sounds very familiar:

“Pray for us, for we trust that we have a clear conscience
and that we strive to live well in every way.
I ask you to do this even more,
so that I may be returned to you sooner.”
(…)
“Know that our brother Timothy has been released.
If he comes soon, I will see you with him.
Greet all your leaders and all the saints.
You have greetings from [the saints in] Italy.
Grace be with you all!”

These words should be read in the context of the story of believers in Italy who faced persecution, such as after the fire of Rome in the year 64, when Paul and Peter were put to death in the final years of Nero (64-68). At the same time, Timothy had just been released, which could easily be understood in connection with the end of Nero's reign.

...to a church that had suffered, but not yet to the point of bleeding

The letter is therefore addressed to a specific church that the sender wants to visit with Timothy. That church is going through a difficult time, but has not yet suffered "to the point of bleeding." It is therefore not about the church in Jerusalem where Stephen and James (the brother of John) were killed and where James, the "brother of the Lord," was stoned to death in the year 62. We should rather think of a church such as Ephesus, Philippi, or Corinth, where Paul and Timothy had already been imprisoned:

“Remember the earlier days, when you were first enlightened, when you had to endure much struggle and suffering, sometimes because you yourselves were exposed to abuse and oppression, sometimes because you were partners with those who were so treated. For you sympathized with those in prison and joyfully accepted the confiscation of your property, knowing that you yourselves had a greater and eternal possession.”

Placed above angels

The view of Jesus in this letter fits with Phil 2 and Col 1: Jesus, who is the image of God and through whom God created the world, was made lower than the angels for a little while to redeem us from the bondage of sin. He had to become human like us, with all our limitations and temptations, to redeem us as his brothers and sisters and to pave the way for us. Now he is seated at the right hand of God, above the angels. If the word of angels was binding (here we hear again the argument in Galatians about the law), how can you disregard the word of the Lord himself? If he gave everything and now prays for us before God's throne, how can we lag behind? The world to come will not be subject to angels.

A door to God's reality

Anyone who takes the entire letter in will realize that it was written by and for Jewish followers of Jesus. They were brought to the Promised Land by Moses, but that is not their final destination. God has an even greater promise: eternal rest and a heavenly Jerusalem, where they may enter freely along the path that Jesus has paved. Through the sacrifice of his flesh, the crucified one paved the way and opened the door to the heavenly sanctuary. The current temple in Jerusalem, like the law, is only a temporary and imperfect reflection of this. He is the high priest in and for eternity.

Who wrote this?

The themes of the letter are thoroughly Pauline, but they are written in a completely new way and with new imagery. The style is so different that many assume it was written by a different author. Around the year 200, the church father Origen already concluded this. Researchers also point to the Torah quotations which, unlike those of Paul, correspond to the quotations in the slightly earlier Jewish scholar Philo of Alexandria. But who was it then? Who worked with Paul and Timothy who could write like that? Some suggest Luke (albeit only as a translator), others Barnabas, Priscilla, or Apollos. No one knows. And when was it written? Some date the letter a little later, but many interpreters believe that it was written when the temple was still standing, i.e., before its destruction in the year 70. Perhaps the war (from 66 to 73) had already begun and the writer foresaw the destruction of the temple. He describes the first covenant with its earthly temple and animal sacrifices as "obsolete, aged, and about to disappear" (8:13). Don't get caught up in the madness of a battle over stones and symbols, he might be saying. 
Personally, I would like to see the story of the Alexandrian teacher Apollos come to a conclusion here. You know, the leader we encountered in Ephesus, Crete, and Corinth. The book of Acts tells us that he was a learned Jew from Alexandria who spoke about John's baptism and the way of Jesus in the synagogues around Ephesus, even before Paul arrived there. Priscilla and Aquila, friends of Paul, then told him about baptism in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Imagine that the letter writer (someone from the circle of Paul and Timothy whom we hear about at the end of the letter) sent a sermon or treatise by a Greek-speaking philosopher and Torah teacher such as Apollos to Jewish believers in, for example, Ephesus, who no longer had a credible leader after the riots surrounding Paul. By sending this letter, the sender shows that although the style of the teachers and the images they use differ, the message about Jesus is the same.

A deeper understanding of Jesus

When we read the letters to the Philippians, the Colossians, the Ephesians, and the Hebrews, as well as the first letter of Peter, as written from Rome in the 60s, we see several people working together to gain an ever deeper understanding of the cosmic significance of Jesus: the risen and glorified Jesus of Nazareth must first have been the descended and humiliated image-bearer of God. The creator of heaven and earth became the bringer of good news, that he will renew heaven and earth.
This does not mean, however, that people at that time began to believe that Jesus had walked the earth as a disguised deity. That would have been impossible in a Jewish movement in which many people had known Jesus personally, with all his human limitations. That is why we read in Hebrews 5:7-9:

"In the days of his flesh, he prayed and pleaded, with loud cries and tears, to the one who was able to save him from death. And he was heard because of his reverence. Although he was the Son, he learned obedience through what he suffered. And having been made perfect, he became the source of eternal salvation for all who obey him."

The idea, which we will also encounter in the Gospels, is that the Son of God became fully human: vulnerable and limited. He had to be born and learn who and what he was. He had to grow into his role. And that, as the writer of this letter discovered, continued after his death. He went before us into heaven to the throne of God's grace, as a perfect and eternal high priest for his people.

Stay strong!

The letter is written to people who are in danger of losing their faith in Jesus, who are attending meetings less frequently, following all kinds of strange teachings, and are in danger of remaining under the old covenant. But what is old and outdated is about to disappear, warns the writer. Sacrifices and rituals are no longer necessary, because Jesus is above Moses and he is more than a human high priest who enters the sanctuary every year. How dare you not heed his call? Look at all the people who lived by their faith and overcame the fear of persecution and death. Then run with perseverance the race that is set before us. Embrace it when people exclude you, for Christ too was crucified outside the city.
Dare to bear his reproach.

Om te onthouden: “Dood aan de Christenen!”, midden jaren 60.

It was all to no avail. Around the year 62, a young high priest stirred up the rioting youth of Jerusalem and James was stoned to death, to the outrage of many devout Jews. In the year 64, Rome was on fire and Emperor Nero blamed the Christians. Dozens of adults and children were burned as torches in his garden or murdered in disgusting spectacles in the arena.

• In II Timothy, we hear how many people in Ephesus have turned away from Paul. Timothy is troubled by this. In the letter, which is probably read to him in the church, Paul encourages him and those who are still faithful: persevere. Paul expects that this time the emperor will sentence him to death. He asks Timothy to come quickly.
• In II Peter, Peter is portrayed as awaiting his imminent death. He emphasizes that God is not delaying his promise of the Second Coming, and that this world will be destroyed by fire. Peter recounts his mystical experience with Jesus on the mountain with "Moses and Elijah." He also warns that Paul's letters should not be misread.
• But in the year 68, the Roman generals also rise up against their emperor, and Nero disappears from the scene. Suicide? From Italy, the author of the anonymous Letter to the Hebrews reports that Timothy has been released – perhaps because Nero has left the country. He hopes to visit his brothers and sisters (perhaps in Ephesus) again soon with Timothy. The letter encourages them to persevere. The temple in Jerusalem is only a human version of the heavenly sanctuary in which Jesus is our high priest.

The Forum of Rome. © Balage Balogh, Archaeology Illustrated.  

A bit of background information: Did Nero blame the Christians?

According to the Roman senator and historian Tacitus, who was an eight-year-old child when Rome was burned down in 64 AD, Nero blamed the Christians (whom Tacitus also despised) in order to exonerate himself:

"Therefore Nero decided to put an end to the rumor and had those whom the people called Christians, hated because of their crimes, subjected to various punishments. (...)
First, those who professed [their Christianity] were arrested, then, on their testimony, an incredible crowd was condemned, no longer for the crime of arson but on the grounds of hatred of mankind.
Condemned to death, they also had to endure the necessary mockery, so that they ended up being torn to pieces by dogs while wrapped in the skins of wild animals, or crucified, or prey to flames, and when the day ceased to shine, they were burned to serve as night lighting.
Nero had made his gardens available for this spectacle and organized chariot races, in which he stood among the people or on a small cart dressed as a charioteer. This aroused pity, although it was directed toward the guilty and those who deserved to be made an example of, because they were not killed for the common good, but to satisfy the cruelty of one person."

Some historians believe that Tacitus exaggerated in order to discredit Nero. The historian Suetonius mentions the punishment of Christians separately from the fire. There may have been a few hundred followers of Jesus in Rome, and not all of them were martyred. For the city, it was an incident, but for the small community itself, it was a huge trauma.
There are also doubts as to whether Nero was even aware of this Christian sect and could distinguish it from the larger Jewish community (although his beloved Poppaea seems to have been familiar with Judaism). "The term 'Christians' was not yet in use at that time," it is argued. "Tacitus uses a word from his own time and projects it back into the past."  But is the term "suffering as a Christian" in 1 Peter 4:16 also such a projection? If so, then that letter must not only be pseudepigraphical and very late, but also anachronistic. Acts 11:26 and 16:28 would also have to be incorrect. Yet the Jewish historian Josephus already used the term "Christians" as an existing term in the 90s. You can certainly examine each of these texts critically, but a critical argument becomes a lot less convincing when you need so many assumptions to support it.
For those who can accept that Paul stood trial in Rome under Nero, there is of course no problem. Nero would then have personally heard the testimonies about Christ mentioned in Phil 1:12-18. Moreover, he may have heard that the sect was suspected because of the threats against the temple in Jerusalem, which were already circulating around the time of Jesus' crucifixion. "Weren't his followers almost disappointed when Caligula died and the temple was saved?" the prosecutor might then ask. "Were Paul's actions in Jerusalem not aimed at destroying the temple in order to provoke a rebellion against the emperor?" And to finish it off: "Don't they say that this world will be destroyed by fire?"

But it will get worse

In the year 66, the Jewish war will break out. Nero will send his legions to Judea. They will destroy the land. The Jews will hope that God will intervene to protect his people and his holy temple. Followers of Jesus will flee the city and pray for his return, trusting that he will ultimately stop Nero. The great battle between light and darkness is about to begin.