Letters to the seven churches

John begins with seven letters to churches in seven cities in the province of Asia. These are not separate letters, but seven perspectives that complement and reinforce each other in a single book. We already knew Ephesus and Laodicea, but Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, and Philadelphia are new to us. This is evidence of the rapid growth of Jesus' followers in this region: there must be several thousand by now. John calls himself their brother and partner in their suffering because of "the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." He sees that people are being killed for that testimony. He himself has been banished to the island of Patmos. He writes to encourage them: It won't be long now, the Lord is coming!

A place for healing in the Asclepion of Pergamum; in the background, the altar to Zeus on the hilltop.© Balage Balogh, Archaeology Illustrated.

The trauma of Nero

That the book of Revelation (like Luke's two-part work, the Gospel and the Acts) was written after the war can be seen in several places. Just as Luke emphasizes the requirements for non-Jewish followers to live in a community with kosher Jewish followers, John acts against leaders in the seven churches who disagree with this. He wants them to take action against sexual immorality and the eating of sacrificial meat. Further on, we see that John also knows that the Lord did not return when the temple was destroyed. Just as Luke adapted the prophecy with the words "Jerusalem will be trampled by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled" (21:24), so we read in Revelation 11:2: "[The Gentiles] will trample on the holy city for 42 months." A symbolic number, as we shall see.
Revelation was therefore written after Nero's death. Nevertheless, rumors circulated that the young Nero had not really committed suicide or even that he had come back to life and would rise again as ruler of the world. Immediately after Nero's fall, there was already someone who claimed to be Nero, then a second (from the province of Asia) under Emperor Titus, and a third under Emperor Domitian. They gained followers and support from foreign powers.
The line of 2 Thessalonians is continued in Revelation 13: Nero is the beast, the antichrist, the fallen angel, the son of perdition (the meaning of the Greek name Apollyon and the Hebrew name Abaddon in 9:11). His name is given as a number: 666. That is the numerical value of the letters of the name "Emperor Nero" in Greek (it is 616 in Latin, and both numbers are found in the surviving manuscripts of Revelation). The writer and the first readers of Revelation remember Nero as the one who persecuted the martyrs who testified of Jesus and sent his legions to Jerusalem. They also remember how they saw in him a new Caligula who wanted to place his idol in the temple. John now foresees that the image of the beast must be worshipped and that anyone who refuses to do so will have their life made impossible by the Roman state power. The question is, of course, how the writer means this reference: does he think that Nero will actually return from the dead, or does he fear that the young emperor Domitian or a successor will turn out to be a Nero? With a number, you can puzzle and keep finding new candidates for the role of the beast.

Domitian, emperor from 81 to 96, assassinated at the age of 44. His face was reconstructed by ©Daniel Voshart. 

The persecution under Domitian

John has had enough of Rome and the emperors who are worshipped as gods around Ephesus. He has heard of the persecutions in Rome and the deaths of Peter and Paul. He has seen the massive destruction and enormous bloodshed in Israel under Vespasian and Titus. And now he sees and foresees further persecutions in Asia.
As a Jew, John suffers from the horrors of war and the loss of the temple. He mourns the victims, feels solidarity with the slaves and forced laborers, and is angry about the ongoing humiliations. The temple tax of the past must now be paid to the Romans, and Emperor Domitian strictly enforces that every Jew, whether born or converted, must contribute. The historian Suetonius writes:

“Taxes on Jews were collected with the utmost severity. People who secretly led a Jewish life or who tried to hide their (Jewish) origins and had not paid the tax on their fellow countrymen were persecuted. I remember from my childhood that I was present when a man of about ninety years of age was examined by the procurator under the greatest scrutiny to see if he was circumcised."

People who convert to Judaism or who follow Jesus as non-Jews can be persecuted as "atheists" because they do not offer sacrifices to the gods or to the emperor. They can lose their possessions, be banished, or be killed unless they are willing to offer sacrifices to the gods again and, in the case of Christians, curse Jesus. John suffers with them as their brother. But he also suffers for those who are afraid and lose their trust in Jesus or who try to hide their faith by eating sacrificial meat from the pagan temples.
Many synagogues are not happy with the followers of Jesus; their missionary zeal does not make the position of Jews as a persecuted minority any easier. The leaders of the synagogues are allowed, within their own community, to punish Jewish followers of Jesus with flogging (as Paul had been flogged many times, receiving thirty-nine lashes). They can also report them to the city authorities as troublemakers. John therefore calls the Jewish communities of Smyrna and Philadelphia "synagogues of Satan."
As a "Christian," an "atheist," or a troublemaking Jew, John has been banished to the island of Patmos. He is angry with Rome and undoubtedly belongs to those who pour out their complaints to God and pray for justice and revenge. He would rejoice if the plagues of Egypt were poured out on the pagans or if God were to overturn Rome with fire from heaven as he once did Sodom and Gomorrah.

Ephesus, possibly a temple for Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian© Balage Balogh, Archaeology Illustrated.

Stars and Scriptures

Astrology was a science in Rome. Decisions about life and death, war and peace, love and business investments were made based on horoscopes and the position of the stars. People were convinced that the cosmos influenced the earth. This included both the fixed patterns of seasons, months, and tides, as well as the disturbances caused by the movements of planets and comets. The constellations represented areas on earth, and the planets represented dominant forces such as power (Jupiter), war (Mars), and love (Venus). Their dynamics do not determine everything you do, but you will get ahead better with the wind at your back. The sparkle of humanity comes from the stars, and the outstanding souls of philosophers and emperors will ascend to join the stars. Amidst the gods, the deified emperors continued to exert their influence on earthly life even after their death.

Domitia, wife of Emperor Domitian (81-96), and their son, who died young, declared gods and now in heaven among seven stars (planets).© Creative Commons British Museum

But for Jews and followers of Jesus (Jewish and non-Jewish), the stars do not have the final say. There is a God who created heaven and earth. He holds our stars in his hand. And through his spirit, he reveals himself to people. That spirit gives words, those words are written down, and those writings can be read again and again. And the reader can also be inspired by the spirit. Yet heaven is not a paradise but a battlefield. In the stars, John sees order and chaos, evil and good powers, beauty and horror. There too is disobedience to God.
But then he sees (as Jesus in Luke 10:18) Satan being thrown out of heaven. His star can no longer control the future. Just as in 1 Peter 5:8 (the devil goes about like a roaring lion because his time is short), the oppression of today is a sign of the bankruptcy of the evil powers.
John's visions are not hallucinations out of thin air. Every expression, every image, every symbol in Revelation is connected to similar expressions in other writings—not only from the New Testament but especially from the Hebrew Bible. Think of the creation in the book of Genesis and the plagues of Egypt in Exodus, the poetry of the Psalms, the beastly kingdoms in Daniel, the final war and the new temple in Isaiah and Ezekiel, the exile of "seventy weeks" that turned out to be seventy years in Jeremiah, and the heavenly visions of Zechariah. The writer and many in his audience knew these texts by heart, while others at least recognized their sound. And that is enough. After all, the writer does not quote his predecessors; he does not present us with a riddle to solve. No, it seems more as if the old expectations have fallen to pieces and John is left with the shards, until the spirit teaches him to look again and a new mosaic becomes visible. With a new piece of the puzzle that changes everything: the image of the lamb that was slain and yet lives. With that, the puzzle is put together again and new layers of meaning emerge. Dash expectations now burst like butterflies from their worn cocoons.

Prophecies and patterns

Our brain is not only built to perceive unique and incomparable individuals, but also to recognize patterns within them: the pattern of a horse or cow, the pattern of a journey or growth, the pattern of reconciliation or conflict. Stories, symbols, and comparisons work in the same way: the pattern of the body helps us to understand society, and the pattern of the hero helps us to experience a Disney film. John sees patterns in the stars, in the scriptures, and in history. The past is prologue, as the English say: patterns repeat themselves.
In Daniel, John read that the anointed one would be killed and that the city would be destroyed; he read that the covenant would be heavy, lasting a week, and that halfway through that week the sacrifices to God would cease. "For 42 months the Gentiles will trample on the holy city," writes John. That is an important period of time for him: 1260 days, three and a half years, time and double time and half time. Think of three and a half days, half a week.  Perhaps John saw that there were about 35 years between the crucifixion and the destruction of the temple, perhaps he hoped that 35 years after the fall of Jerusalem, Rome would also be destroyed and the Lord would return.

Perhaps.

It is important to note that most of the prophecies in the Hebrew Bible did not come true in the time of the prophet or in the manner described. We read how Jonah was to prophesy against the city of Nineveh, which oppressed the nations in his day: "Forty days more, and Nineveh shall be overthrown!" But the king and the people of Nineveh repented, and the judgment was stayed, much to the prophet's anger. "I knew that You are gracious and merciful, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love," he laments. Isaiah promised King Ahaz that God would name the child of his pregnant young wife Immanuel, "God with us." And in his dreams he sees how people call him "Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." But her little son Hezekiah could not bear those words, even though he was a good king. Isaiah's far-reaching words are still prophetic when Mary gives birth to Jesus. Our narrators and translators knew that. In fact, doesn't the author's adaptation of biblical prophecies say something about his understanding of the phenomenon of prophecy?
That does not mean that he or she did not consider these prophets inspired, or that they did not see the right patterns: sin leads to judgment, apostasy to exile, and oppression to revenge. But there are also other patterns that can bring about change: conversion leads to change, God creates a new beginning. There is always a new concrete context in which these patterns can be recognized. And there is the idea that God reveals himself further in history.
In that sense, it is quite natural that people in later times search again for the patterns that herald the end of time: climate change, racial strife, nuclear weapons, meteorites, global viruses, technological revolutions. Some people pick up the Book of Revelation again and see that it is upon us. And that is true; we are now more aware than ever that the earth is fragile and finite. But don't let that drive you crazy. There are also patterns of faith, hope, and love that show us the way to a new heaven and a new earth.

House church: what do the Scriptures say? © Balage Balogh, Archaeology Illustrated.

The lamb that opens the patterns

For those who are in the midst of suffering, for those who are up to their lips in turbulent waters, it can be a comfort to see the anointed one in heaven with the bloodied sword of vengeance in his hand. But that image can be shocking to those who want to escape violence, to those who found in Jesus a source of love, without judgment and without punishment.
Listen then to the layer beneath. Revenge tastes sweet, but it gives you stomach ache, John teaches us. The fighting anointed one defeats the demons, but not as we expect. There is another pattern that is even stronger, even more transformative. The Lamb that was slain is worthy to break the seals of prophecy. Every time John sees the Lamb, the light breaks through. The repeating patterns of God and humans, of heaven and earth, of Jews and Gentiles are transformed from within in the life of Jesus. In his humiliation lies our glory, in his death our new life. With his conscious acceptance of suffering, the Lamb has defeated death and won the battle in heaven. Satan, the heavenly accuser, and his angels have been cast out of heaven, so that the outcome of the battle on earth is certain. Our image of God as the one who judges us has been shattered. The Lamb reigns.
In the Lamb, 144,000 people from the tribes of Israel are saved: 12 x 12 x 1000, everything multiplied by everything multiplied by many. All of Israel. And then a multitude from all nations that no one can count. In him, John sees a new heaven and a new earth. A new Jerusalem, the bride of the Lamb. And that Lamb bears the names of God; it is one with God. There is no longer any need for a temple to offer sacrifices to God, because God has given himself to us.
Pay attention to the Lamb.

Summary: Visions in the night, around the year 90.

Many Jewish refugees also arrive in the densely populated region around Ephesus, causing the communities there to grow rapidly. However, these migrants bring their war traumas with them. They fear the worst when Emperor Domitian (a son of Vespasian) imposes a special tax on the defeated Jews with an iron fist. Non-Jews who adopt a "Jewish" way of life, such as the followers of Jesus, also face hardship in some provinces.

• The Revelation of John is a written vision intended to encourage the churches in and around Ephesus. The author is a Jew, John, who has been exiled to an island because of his testimony that Jesus is the coming Lord. In his view, the ancient prophecies of the Hebrew Bible are given a new interpretation in a clash between God's Messiah and Roman imperialism. It is a violent but hopeful message. In heaven, that battle has already been fought, and there the new Jerusalem is being prepared as the bride of the Messiah. Her bridegroom is the Lamb. The Messiah who gave his own life for the new covenant between God and man. The Second Coming will only be greater: Rome will be defeated, death will be conquered, and heaven and earth will be renewed. There will be no need for a temple of stone, for God or the Lamb himself has become the temple for mankind.

Ephesus, the seat of the governor of the Roman province of Asia.© Balage Balogh, Archaeology Illustrated.

A bit of background information: Did Domitian persecute Christians?

We have little evidence for the traditional belief that Domitian persecuted the followers of Jesus throughout the empire and specifically as Christians. We do know that he imposed taxes on Jews and that he had his nephew Clement executed and his wife Domitilla exiled for their "atheism," the refusal to worship the gods. This was an accusation against "many who drifted toward Judaism," whether or not they were followers of Jesus. Only ethnic Jews were exempt from the obligation to worship the gods.
As in the case of Nero, there are doubts. But beware, you cannot acquit them both. There is clear evidence (see below the letter from Governor Pliny to Emperor Trajan) that a law was enacted against "Christians" carrying the death penalty. That must have been done by Nero or Domitian. If Domitian had done so, there would have been persecution in all provinces, and we see no evidence of that. But if the law dates back to Nero's time, a local governor in the 90s could have chosen to actively enforce it. 
How this happened is described in the letters of Pliny the Younger, who became governor of Bithynia (the province north of Asia) around the year 112. He was confronted with a lawsuit against people accused of being 'Christians'. Pliny is not familiar with the old law and is 'reluctant': he has some stubborn Christians executed, two deaconesses tortured, and then asks the emperor for help, because there are so many Christians that the pagan temples are selling less and less sacrificial meat. The emperor is not really interested either, but anyone who is proven to be a Christian and refuses to sacrifice to the gods must, of course, be put to death. If torture and executions were normal under a "reluctant" governor and emperor, what must it have been like in Asia under a less reluctant governor and a Domitian who was hunting down Jews?

Pliny to Emperor Trajan:

"It is my constant practice, Lord, to submit all matters about which I am uncertain to You. For who can better guide me in my hesitation and instruct me in my ignorance?
I have not previously been involved in the persecution of Christians and therefore do not know what punishments (and interrogations) are meted out and how harshly. I have long pondered the question of whether a distinction should be made based on age or physical condition. Is there room for mercy for those who repent and have stopped? And is the name "Christian" alone punishable, without further misdeeds, or is it the misdeeds committed under that name?
For the time being, when people were brought before me as Christians, I proceeded as follows. I asked them if they were Christians. Those who confessed, I asked a second and a third time, under threat of the [death] penalty. Those who persisted I had taken away, for I have no doubt that, whatever one believes, such obstinate and inflexible stubbornness deserves to be punished. There were also some, equally insane, whom I could not execute because they were Roman citizens; I sent them to Rome with the charges against them.
Soon after my treatment of this crime became known, more cases arose, as often happens. An anonymous pamphlet was received with many names in it. Those who denied being Christians or ever having been Christians, who invoked the Roman gods with the correct wording, who offered incense and wine before your image (which I had brought here for this purpose) and cursed Christ—which true Christians could not possibly be made to do—I acquitted and released. Others who were named in the report admitted that they were Christians but quickly renounced their faith; some had already done so, one three years ago, another many years ago, several even twenty years ago [when Domitian was emperor! - BvO]. They too had all venerated the images of you and the gods and cursed Christ.
However, they claimed that their guilt or fault was no more than the custom of gathering on a fixed day [of the week] before daylight and singing a song to Christ as a god and binding themselves to each other with a vow. That was not to commit crimes. On the contrary: 'no theft or robbery, no adultery, no false testimony, no holding on to property entrusted to another'. After this, they dispersed to gather again later that day for a normal and innocent meal. They had ceased doing this after my edict, which, in accordance with your command, prohibits gatherings [of all kinds]. I therefore considered it all the more necessary to have two female slaves, known as deaconesses, tortured in order to discover the truth. But I found nothing but degenerate and unbridled superstition.
I have therefore suspended the investigation and hastened to consult you. The matter seems to me worthy of your consideration, given the large number of people affected. For many people of all ages, all classes, and both sexes have been and are being endangered. And not only in the cities: this contamination is also widespread in villages and fields—but it seems to be remedied and rectified. It is already clear that almost deserted temples are beginning to be visited again and that religious ceremonies are taking place again after a long interruption. Everywhere there is sacrificial meat again, for which until recently there were few buyers. From this it is easy to deduce how large the crowd is that can be corrected if there is room for repentance."

Trajan to Pliny the Younger:

"You have done what you had to do, dear Secundus, in dealing with reports against Christians. After all, there is no general, clearly defined procedure for resolving this. You should not actively persecute them; [only] if there are reports and evidence against them should they be punished. With the proviso that anyone who denies [still] being a Christian and proves it by invoking our gods shall be pardoned, however suspicious their past may be.
Anonymous pamphlets have no place in criminal cases; they set very bad precedents and do not fit in with my [reign]."